René Girard

An astonishing work of cultural criticism, this book is widely recognized as a brilliant and devastating challenge to conventional views of literature, anthropology, religion, and psychoanalysis. In its scope and interest it can be compared with Freud's Totem and Taboo, the subtext Girard refutes with polemic daring, vast erudition, and a persuasiveness that leaves the reader compelled to respond, one way or another.This is the single fullest summation of Girard's ideas to date, the book by which they will stand or fall. In a dialogue with two psychiatrists (Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort), Girard probes an encyclopedic array of topics, ranging across the entire spectrum of anthropology, psychoanalysis, and cultural production.Girard's point o departure is what he calls 'mimesis,' the conflict that arises when human rivals compete to differentiate themselves from each other, yet succeed only in becoming more and more alike. At certain points in the life of a society, according to Girard, this mimetic conflict erupts into a crisis in which all difference dissolves in indiscriminate violence. In primitive societies, such crises were resolved by the 'scapegoating mechanism,' in which the community, en masse, turned on an unpremeditated victim. The repression of this collective murder and its repetition in ritual sacrifice then formed the foundations of both religion and the restored social order.How does Christianity, at once the most 'sacrificial' of religions and a faith with a non-violent ideology, fit into this scheme? Girard grants Freud's point, in Totem and Taboo, that Christianity is similar to primitive religion, but only to refute Freud—if Christ is sacrificed, Girard argues, it is not because God willed it, but because human beings wanted it.The book is not merely, or perhaps not mainly, biblical exegesis, for within its scope fall some of the most vexing problems of social history—the paradox that violence has social efficacy, the function of the scapegoat, the mechanism of anti-semitism.

In a fascinating analysis of critical themes in Feodor Dostoevsky’s work, René Girard explores the implications of the Russian author’s “underground,” a site of isolation, alienation, and resentment. Brilliantly translated, this book is a testament to Girard’s remarkable engagement with Dostoevsky’s work, through which he discusses numerous aspects of the human condition, including desire, which Girard argues is “triangular” or “mimetic”―copied from models or mediators whose objects of desire become our own. Girard’s interdisciplinary approach allows him to shed new light on religion, spirituality, and redemption in Dostoevsky’s writing, culminating in a revelatory discussion of the author’s spiritual understanding and personal integration. Resurrection is an essential and thought-provoking companion to Dostoevsky’s Notes from the Underground .

Книга выдающегося философа Рене Жирара - одна из лучших современных антропологических апологий христианства - развивает проблематику жертвоприношения, миметического насилия, понимаемого как акт, лежащий в основе культуры и социума. Автор обращается к великим библейским темам зла и прежде всего - к теме Сатаны. По его мнению, Евангелия есть скорее учение о человеке, чем о Боге, карта насилий человечества, в которой его замыкают гордость и зависть. Обнаружить это учение о человеке и принять его, считает философ, значит воскресить идею Библии как целостного пророчества о Христе. Жирар рассматривает Евангелия как ключ ко всей мифологии прошлого, равно как и к будущим мифологиям, к той неслыханной истории, которая нас ожидает.

Violence and the Sacred is Rene Girard's landmark study of human evil. Here Girard explores violence as it is represented and occurs throughout history, literature and myth. Girard's forceful and thought-provoking analyses of Biblical narrative, Greek tragedy and the lynchings and pogroms propagated by contemporary states illustrate his central argument that violence belongs to everyone and is at the heart of the sacred.

Widely regarded as one of the most profound critics of our time, René Girard has pursued a powerful line of inquiry across the fields of the humanities and the social sciences. His theories, which the French press has termed "l'hypothèse girardienne," have sparked interdisciplinary, even international, controversy. In The Scapegoat, Girard applies his approach to "texts of persecution," documents that recount phenomena of collective violence from the standpoint of the persecutor--documents such as the medieval poet Guillaume de Machaut's Judgement of the King of Navarre, which blames the Jews for the Black Death and describes their mass murder.Girard compares persecution texts with myths, most notably with the myth of Oedipus, and finds strikingly similar themes and structures. Could myths regularly conceal texts of persecution? Girard's answers lies in a study of the Christian Passion, which represents the same central event, the same collective violence, found in all mythology, but which is read from the point of view of the innocent victim. The Passion text provides the model interpretation that has enabled Western culture to demystify its own violence--a demystification Girard now extends to mythology.Underlying Girard's daring textual hypothesis is a powerful theory of history and culture. Christ's rejection of all guilt breaks the mythic cycle of violence and the sacred. The scapegoat becomes the Lamb of God; "the foolish genesis of blood-stained idols and the false gods of superstition, politics, and ideologies" are revealed.

This study extends beyond the scope of literature into the psychology of much of our contemporary scene, including fashion, advertising, and propaganda techniques. In considering such aspects, the author goes beyond the domain of pure aesthetics and offers an interpretation of some basic cultural problems of our time.

In Sacrifice , René Girard interrogates the Brahmanas of Vedic India, exploring coincidences with mimetic theory that are too numerous and striking to be accidental. Even that which appears to be dissimilar fails to contradict mimetic theory, but instead corresponds to the minimum of illusion without which sacrifice becomes impossible. The Bible reveals collective violence, similar to that which generates sacrifice everywhere, but instead of making victims guilty, the Bible and the Gospels reveal the persecutors of a single victim. Instead of elaborating myths, they tell the truth absolutely contrary to the archaic sense. Once exposed, the single victim mechanism can no longer function as the model for would-be sacrificers. Recognizing that the Vedic tradition also converges on a revelation that discredits sacrifice, mimetic theory locates within sacrifice itself a paradoxical power of quiet reflection that leads, in the long run, to the eclipse of this institution which is violent but nevertheless fundamental to the development of human culture. Far from unduly privileging the Western tradition and awarding it a monopoly on the knowledge and repudiation of blood sacrifice, mimetic analysis recognizes comparable, but never truly identical, traits in the Vedic tradition.

In this groundbreaking work, one of our foremost literary and cultural critics turns to the major figure in English literature, William Shakespeare, and proposes a dramatic new reading of nearly all his plays and poems. The key to A Theater of Envy is Rene Girard's novel reinterpretation of"mimesis." For Girard, people desire objects not for their intrinsic value, but because they are desired by someone else--we mime or imitate their desires. This envy--or "mimetic desire"--he sees as one of the foundations of the human condition.Bringing such provocative and iconoclastic insights to bear on Shakespeare, Girard reveals the previously overlooked coherence of problem plays like Troilus and Cressida , and makes a convincing argument for elevating A Midsummer Night's Dream from the status of a chaotic comedy to amasterpiece. The book abounds with novel and provocative Shakespeare becomes "a prophet of modern advertising," and the threat of nuclear disaster is read in the light of Hamlet . Most intriguing of all, perhaps, is a brief, but brilliant aside in which an entirely new perspectiveis brought to the chapter in Joyce's Ulysses in which Stephen Dedalus gives a lecture on Shakespeare. In Girard's view only Joyce, perhaps the greatest of twentieth-century novelists, comes close to understanding the greatest of Renaissance playwrights.Throughout this impressively sustained reading of Shakespeare Girard's prose is sophisticated, but contemporary, and accessible to the general reader. Anyone interested in literature, anthropology, or psychoanalysis will want to read this challenging book. And all those involved in theatricalproduction and performance will find A Theater of Envy full of suggestive new ideas.

In one volume, an anthology of seminal work of one of the twentieth century's most original thinkers.

How we are motivated to imitate wanting what others desire—Girard’s theory primed for the social media age.A Penguin ClassicRené Girard eludes easy categories, bridging the fields of literary criticism, anthropology, sociology, history, religion and theology. Influencing such writers as J. M. Coetzee and Milan Kundera, his insight into contagious violence looks ever more prophetic and relevant seven years after his death. In many ways he is the thinker for our modern world of social media and herd behavior. In this newly selected collection of writings, Cynthia L. Haven has created an approachable anthology of his work, addressing Girard's thoughts on the nature of desire, human imitation and rivalry, the causes of conflict and violence, the deep structure of religion and cultural subjects like opera and theatre. Girard spoke in language that was engaging, accessible and often controversial. A long-time friend and colleague, Haven shines a spotlight on his role as a public intellectual and profound theorist, inviting a new generation to his corpus.

Carl von Clausewitz (1780–1831), the Prussian military theoretician who wrote On War , is known above all for his famous “War is the continuation of politics by other means.” In René Girard’s view, however, the strategist’s treatise offers up a more disturbing truth to the reader willing to extrapolate from its most daring with modern warfare comes the insanity of tit-for-tat escalation, which political institutions have lost their ability to contain. Having witnessed the Napoleonic Wars firsthand, Girard argues, Clausewitz intuited that unbridled “reciprocal action” could eventually lead foes to total mutual annihilation. Haunted by the Franco-German conflict that was to ravage Europe, in Girard’s account Clausewitz is a prescient witness to the terrifying acceleration of history. Battling to the End issues a warning about the apocalyptic threats hanging over our planet and delivers an authoritative lesson on the mimetic laws of violence.

Presented as a series of conversations, Evolution and Conversion is a thorough discussion of the major tenets of Girard's thought.René Girard is one of the most brilliant and striking intellectuals of the 20th century. His theory on the imitative nature of desire and on the violent origin of culture has been at the centre of the philosophical and theoretical debate since the publication in 1971 of his seminal book: Violence and the Sacred. His reflection on the relationship between violence and religion is one of the most original and persuasive and, given the urgency of this issue in our contemporary world, demands a reappraisal.Girard, who has been hailed by Michel Serres as "the Charles Darwin" of human sciences, is in fact one of the few thinkers in the humanities and social sciences that takes into full consideration an evolutionary perspective to explain the emergence of culture and institutions. The authors draw out this aspect of his thought by foregrounding ethological, anthropological and evolutionary theories.Methodological and epistemological systematization has also been lacking in Girard's previous books, and by questioning him on the issue of evidence and truth, the authors provide a convincing framework for further inquiries. In the last chapters, Girard proposes a provocative re-reading of the Biblical texts, seen as the culmination of an enduring process of historical awareness of the presence and function of collective violence in our world. In fact, Girard's long argument is a historical spiral in which the origin of culture and archaic religion is reunited with the contemporary world by means of a reinterpretation of Christianity and its revelation of the intrinsic violent nature of the human being.

“Why is there so much violence in our midst?” René Girard asks. “No question is more debated today. And none produces more disappointing answers.” In Girard’s mimetic theory it is the imitation of someone else’s desire that gives rise to conflict whenever the desired object cannot be shared. This mimetic rivalry, Girard argues, is responsible for the frequency and escalating intensity of human conflict. For Girard, human conflict comes not from the loss of reciprocity between humans but from the transition, imperceptible at first but then ever more rapid, from good to bad reciprocity. In this landmark text, Girard continues his study of violence in light of geopolitical competition, focusing on the roots and outcomes of violence across societies latent in the process of globalization. The volume concludes in a wide-ranging interview with the Sicilian cultural theorist Maria Stella Barberi, where Girard’s twenty-first century emphases on the continuity of all religions, global conflict, and the necessity of apocalyptic thinking emerge.

What do we know about the Book of Job? Not very much. The hero complains endlessly. He has just lost his children all his livestock. He scratches his ulcers. The misfortunes of which he complains are all duly enumerated in the prologue. They are misfortunes brought on him by Satan with God's permission. We think we know, but are we sure? Not once in the Dialogues does Job mention either Satan or anything about his misdeeds. Could it be that they are too much on his mind for him to mention them? Possibly, yet Job mentions everything else, and does much more than mention. He dwells heavily on the cause of his misfortune, which is none of those mentioned in the prologue. The cause is not divine, satanic nor physical, but merely human.

Pourquoi l’anorexie frappe-t-elle certaines femmes plus que les autres ? Les individus sont plus ou moins rivalitaires, il n’en va pas autrement dans le cas de la minceur que dans d’autres domaines. Les femmes anorexiques veulent être championnes de leur catégorie.Le résultat final est tragique dans les cas extrêmes, mais cela ne doit pas nous faire perdre de vue le fait que l’obsession de la minceur caractérise toute notre culture, ce n’est nullement quelque chose qui distingue ces filles en particulier.

In this lively series of conversations with writer Michel Treguer, René Girard revisits the major concepts of mimetic theory and explores science, democracy, and the nature of God and freedom. Girard affirms that “our unprecedented present is incomprehensible without Christianity.” Globalization has unified the world, yet civil war and terrorism persist despite free trade and economic growth. Because of mimetic desire and the rivalry it generates, asserts Girard, “whether we’re talking about marriage, friendship, professional relationships, issues with neighbors or matters of national unity, human relations are always under threat.” Literary masters including Marivaux, Dostoevsky, and Joyce understood this, as did archaic religion, which warded off violence with blood sacrifice. Christianity brought a new understanding of sacrifice, giving rise not only to modern rationality and science but also to a fragile system that is, in Girard’s words, “always teetering between a new golden age and a destructive apocalypse.” Treguer, a skeptic of mimetic theory, “Is what he’s telling me true...or is it just a nice story, a way of looking at things?” In response, Girard makes a compelling case for his theory.

An individual desires an object, not for itself, but because another individual also desires it. This mimetic desire, Rene Girard contends, lies at the source of all human disorder and order. In brilliant readings of Dante, Camus, Nietzsche, Dostoevski, Levi-Strauss, Freud, and others, Girard draws out the thesis of mimetic desire -- and ponders its suppression in the West since Plato: The historical mutilation of mimesis ...was no mere oversight, no fortuitous 'error.' Real awareness of mimetic desire threatens the flattering delusion we entertain not only about ourselves as individuals but also about the nature and origin of that collective self we call our society.

French theorist René Girard was one of the major thinkers of the twentieth century. Read by international leaders, quoted by the French media, Girard influenced such writers as J.M. Coetzee and Milan Kundera. Dubbed “the new Darwin of the human sciences” and “the most compelling Catholic thinker of the age”, Girard spent nearly four decades at Stanford exploring what it means to be human and making major contributions to philosophy, literary criticism, psychology and theology with his mimetic theory.This is the first collection of interviews with Girard, one that brings together discussions on Cervantes, Dostoevsky, and Proust alongside the causes of conflict and violence and the role of imitation in human behavior. Granting important insights into Girard's life and thought, these provocative and lively conversations underline Girard's place as leading public intellectual and profound theorist.

Il ruolo della religione cristiana nel mondo globalizzato e multiculturale, il suo rapporto con la morale, il complesso e delicato confronto tra verità e libertà e tra relativismo e fede, i pericoli e le tensioni di un mondo dove sembrano riaffacciarsi nuove forme di violenza di matrice religiosa. Attorno a questi temi si sta articolando, ormai da qualche anno, anche il dialogo fra due dei più grandi pensatori viventi: l'antropologo francese René Girard e il filosofo italiano Gianni Vattimo, dialogo che sta contribuendo vivacemente alla costruzione di una nuova comprensione di problemi al centro del nostro interesse più profondo. Partendo da presupposti speculativi differenti (l'antropologia cristiana di Girard, e la filosofia heideggeriana di Vattimo), le risposte dei due pensatori sono non di rado contrapposte, ma rimandano anche alla condivisione di alcuni valori, e a un comune atteggiamento di dialogo.

The greatest French novelist of the twentieth century seen through the eyes of his best interpreters... Marcel Proust chronicled society – the world of tradition and ritual, of "snobisme" and erotic passion, of futility and corrosive ambition – as well as his spiritual self and all mankind. In this collection editor René Girard brings the man and his work into biographical and critical focus.

Geometrías del deseo es el libro más reciente de René Girard, uno de los pensadores actuales más innovadores. La piedra angular de su teoría, el deseo mimético –el que es orientado siempre por aquello que desean los otros–, permanece firme como elemento de comprensión para el indescifrable caos moderno. En un mundo secular en el que los sujetos a adorar que han reemplazado a los dioses se encuentran entre los propios hombres, la obra de Girard cobra especial importancia para entender las relaciones sociales y amorosas. En esta compilación de ensayos esenciales de René Girard –realizada con gran tino por Mark Aspach– el filósofo retoma algunos de los grandes autores clásicos como Dante, Shakespeare y Racine, e importantes autores contemporáneos como Malraux, Sartre y otros más, para descifrar a sus personajes y tragedias. Con su habitual agudeza, muestra que la literatura es un espejo de los fondos más ocultos de la existencia humana, al ser un arte que ofrece claves para comprender la principal fuerza motriz del actuar humano: el deseo y su desquiciante complejidad.

Did Oedipus really kill his father and marry his mother? Or is he nothing but a scapegoat, set up to take the blame for a crisis afflicting Thebes? For René Girard, the mythic accusations of patricide and incest are symptomatic of a plague-stricken community's hunt for a culprit to punish, and Girard succeeds in making us see an age-old myth in a wholly new light. The hard-to-find writings assembled here include three major early essays, never before available in English, which afford a behind-the-scenes glimpse at the emergence of Girard's scapegoat theory from his pioneering analysis of rivalry and desire. Girard unbinds the Oedipal triangle from its Freudian moorings, replacing desire for the mother with desire for anyone―or anything―a rival desires. In a wide-ranging and provocative introduction, Mark R. Anspach presents fresh evidence for Girard's hypotheses from classical studies, literature, anthropology, and the life of Freud himself.

« Où le lecteur redécouvre Dostoïevski, Camus, Dante et Hugo, sous la conduite de l'un des grands maîtres de lecture contemporains, et s'initie aux thèmes fondamentaux du "système Girard". »

Mimesis and Theory brings together twenty of René Girard's uncollected essays on literature and literary theory, which, along with his classic, Deceit, Desire, and the Novel , have left an indelible mark on the field of literary and cultural studies. Spanning over fifty years of critical production, this anthology offers unique insights into the origin, development, and expansion of Girard's "mimetic theory"―a groundbreaking account of human interaction and of the genesis of cultural forms. The essays run the gamut of Western literary culture, from Racine and Shakespeare to the existentialist writings of Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre. The authors who have most influenced Girard―Stendhal, Proust, and Dostoevsky―receive extended treatment, and Girard's observations on the changing landscape of literary studies are chronicled in several essays devoted to psychoanalysis, formalism, structuralism, and post-structuralism. Though at times overshadowed by his work in religious and cultural anthropology, Girard's work in the area of literary studies has been the wellspring of his thought. All of the essays in this volume develop the idea that the greatest authors are also the greatest students of human nature, for their artistic intuitions are generally more penetrating than the analyses of the philosophers or the social scientists. Girard does not offer us a theory of literature but literature as theory.

“La probabilità dell’esistenza di una vera vittima dietro ai temi del mito è molto, molto alta” Al contrario dell’antropologia moderna, che va il più lontano possibile, verso le “culture altre”, il discorso antropologico di Girard si concentra su ciò che è più vicino e a portata di mano. Girard difatti non pone distinzioni fra le diverse culture, in quanto le ritiene parte di una stessa umanità fatta della medesima stoffa antropologica. Anche per questo non c’è bisogno di alcun “lavoro sul campo”, visto che i testi di riferimento si trovano anzitutto all’interno della nostra tradizione culturale: i tragici greci, la Bibbia, Shakespeare, il romanzo moderno. I miti d’origine raccolti in questo volume, una serie di saggi apparsi nel tempo in diverse antologie, approfondiscono e chiariscono l’analisi condotta nelle opere maggiori di Girard. Il mito ha un ruolo centrale nella sua teoria del “capro espiatorio”. È il momento finale, di sistematizzazione narrativa del dramma appena compiutosi all’interno della comunità: dopo aver individuato la vittima sacrificale, causa dell’insorgenza della crisi, in seguito la sua morte dà vita a un processo di trasformazione del presunto colpevole in eroe o dio. Insomma, l’ordine culturale umano scaturisce dalla ritualizzazione del sacrificio iniziale, e il mito quindi non è altro che il resoconto di quell’evento fondativo.

Never before translated in English, this 1973 discussion between René Girard (1923–2015) and other prominent scholars represents one of the most significant breakthroughs in mimetic theory. Organized by the French journal Esprit, the conversation was an opportunity for Girard to debate with his interlocutors the theories he expounded in Violence and the Sacred (1972). These scholars prompted him to reconsider the book’s strictly sociological interpretation of religion, highlighting the misrecognition of violent scapegoating at its origins and in its myths and ritual practices, by addressing the relation between his critique of primitive or archaic religion and the role of Judeo-Christianity. The ensuing discussion opened up an entirely new and admittedly startling phase of his thinking, where he deployed an epistemology rooted in Biblical revelation, which he viewed as an ongoing deconstruction of sacrificial practices. In this text, he vindicates for the very first time the anthropological relevance of Judeo-Christian scriptures. The 1973 discussion thus marks a new and decisive step in Girard’s intellectual journey, making this volume a critical document for understanding the transition period between Violence and the Sacred and Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World (1978).

Menschen und Gemeinschaften begehren Objekte nicht um ihrer selbst willen – sondern sie imitieren das Begehren anderer. Durch dieses »mimetische Begehren«, ein Grundkonzept im Denken des Kulturanthropologen und Religionsphilosophen René Girard (1923–2015), entstehen Rivalität und Konflikte. Wie diese zu einem Ende finden, beschreibt Girard mit einem »Sündenbock-Mechanismus«: Die mimetische Vergiftung bewegt sich weg vom Sehnen hin zu einem Opfer, das alle Schuld zu tragen hat – als ob es tatsächlich verantwortlich wäre. Girard gilt als Theoretiker der Seine Überlegungen über Konflikte und Ideologien, wie sie das titelgebende Gespräch und sein letzter Essay »Über Krieg und Apokalypse« pointiert zugänglich machen, lassen uns die Entwicklungen der Gegenwart besser verstehen.

Discours de réception de René Girard à l'Académie française et réponse de Michel Serres

«Il titolo intende riferirsi a quella voce che per tutta la vita mi sono sforzato di ascoltare e trascrivere» spiega René Girard. E quella voce – sempre coperta dal «nostro coro unanime» e dalle «mode tiranniche» dell’antropologia – è l’urlo soffocato del capro espiatorio, vittima del linciaggio fondatore. La «realtà» sarebbe dunque quella svelata da una teoria – denominata mimetica – di poderosa forza interpretativa, che pervade l’intera opera di Girard: «una teoria di cui non so se sono stato io a crearla, o se non è stata lei a creare me». E alla teoria mimetica si ispirano anche gli scritti raccolti in questo volume, in cui il pensiero di Girard si addensa e al tempo stesso si espande in quei territori dove è impossibile distinguere tra filosofia, antropologia, letteratura e religione: dai due saggi iniziali, che dimostrano l’incompletezza dello schema strutturalista riguardo al mito e all’origine del pensiero simbolico, ai due dedicati alla figura di Nietzsche, indagata nel suo rapporto con i coniugi Wagner – visto come «un triangolo mitologico» – e nella sua posizione radicalmente anticristiana; dallo scritto che demolisce l’accusa di antisemitismo mossa ai Vangeli a quello che sottolinea l’aspetto profetico e apocalittico di Dostoevskij; dal saggio sulla peste nella letteratura e nel mito a quello sulla comicità, in cui si svela come pianto e riso siano un’erma bifronte, o meglio una maschera doppia e sovrapposta. Per finire con una riflessione aperta sulla contemporaneità, dove Girard addita nel concetto di innovazione l’ultimo idolo, l’ennesima «astuzia della ragione» per eludere le domande fondamentali.

Partendo dalle macerie di Ground Zero e dalle sue implicazioni culturali, politiche e sociali, René Girard, uno dei più influenti pensatori oggi viventi, analizza gli eventi attuali e i fatti del nostro tempo – il fondamentalismo religioso, il cosiddetto scontro di civiltà, la minaccia nucleare, la crisi ecologica – come segni evidenti di un’imminente apocalisse, o meglio, della circostanza immanente che stiamo vivendo in tempi apocalittici.Per Girard l’unico modo di leggere, interpretare e capire a fondo questi segni è tornare all’origine della loro evoluzione storica: il nucleo anti-sacrificale del cristianesimo che ha prodotto la modernità e liberato la capacità autodistruttiva dell’uomo.In una prospettiva più filosofica, l’epistemologo francese Jean-Pierre Dupuy, analizza ulteriormente questi temi proponendo una metafisica alternativa in cui la nostra volontà si combina con una versione particolarmente severa del futuro della realtà, proponendo «una forma illuminata di catastrofismo», una «profezia secolare», attraverso la quale possiamo davvero prevenire l’apocalisse solo osservando il nostro tempo con gli occhi di un futuro prevedibile in cui l’apocalisse è già “realmente” accaduta.Due riflessioni esemplari, speculari l’una all’altra e dalle implicazioni sorprendenti, su uno dei momenti più incerti della storia dell’uomo.Scheda di approfondimento«La televisione ha accompagnato tutte le fasi dell’11 settembre. La televisione ci ha permesso di essere sulla scena del delitto e quindi ce l’ha fatto vivere più intensamente, quasi dall’interno. L’evento è accaduto in diretta. Se non l’avessimo vissuto nel senso più letterale del termine non avrebbe avuto lo stesso impatto. Penso che se avessi scritto La violenza e il sacro dopo l’11 settembre vi avrei fatto quasi sicuramente riferimento. Quello che è successo l’11 settembre ci dà la possibilità di capire l’evento moderno in sé, perché ci permette di capire meglio quello antico. L’11 settembre rappresenta uno strano ritorno all’antico in seno al secolarismo che caratterizza il nostro tempo. Non molto tempo fa avremmo avuto una reazione cristiana all’11 settembre. Oggi stiamo invece reagendo all’antica, e questo non preannuncia niente di buono per il futuro.»«Chi dice che i cristiani sono anarchici ha in un certo senso ragione. I cristiani obliterano “i poteri” di questo mondo cancellando la legittimità di qualsiasi forma di violenza. Lo Stato vede il cristianesimo come forza anarchica. Ogni volta che il cristianesimo recupera vigore spirituale, questo aspetto riemerge.Di conseguenza il conflitto con i musulmani è davvero ben più significativo di quanto pensino gli stessi integralisti. I fondamentalisti pensano che l’apocalisse sia l’ira violenta di Dio. Ma se leggiamo con attenzione i capitoli sull’Apocalisse, capiamo che in realtà parlano della violenza dell’uomo liberata dalla distruzione dei poteri secolari, e cioè degli Stati, che è quello a cui stiamo ora assistendo.»